1 . galaxy type
if too elliptical:
star formation would cease before sufficient heavy element build-up for life
chemistry
if too irregular:
radiation exposure on occasion would be too severe and heavy elements for
life chemistry would not be available
2. supernova. eruptions
if too close:
life on the planet would be exterminated by radiation
if too far:
not enough heavy element ashes would exist for the formation of rocky planets
if too frequent
: life on the planet would be exterminated
if too infrequent:
not enough heavy element ashes would be present for the formation of
rocky planets
if too late:
life on the planet would be exterminated by radiation
if too soon:
not enough heavy element ashes would exist for the formation of rocky planets
3. white dwarf binaries
if too few:
insufficient fluorine would be produced for life chemistry to proceed
if too many:
planetary orbits would be disrupted by stellar density; life on the planet would
be exterminated
if too soon:
not enough heavy elements would be made for efficient fluorine production
if too late:
fluorine would be made too late for incorporation in protoplanet
4. parent star distance from center of galaxy
if farther:
quantity of heavy elements would be insufficient to make rocky planets
if closer:
galactic radiation would be too great, stellar density would disturb planetary orbits
out of life support zones
5. number of stars in the planetary system
if more than one:
tidal interactions would disrupt planetary orbits
if less than one:
heat produced would be insufficient for life
6. parent star birth date
if more recent:
star would not yet have reached stable burning phase; stellar system would
contain too many heavy elements
if less recent:
stellar system would not contain enough heavy elements
7. parent star age
if older:
luminosity of star would change too quickly
if younger:
luminosity of star would change too quickly
8. parent star mass
if greater:
luminosity of star would change too quickly; star would bum too rapidly
if less:
range of distances appropriate for life would be too narrow; tidal forces would disrupt
the rotational period for a planet of the right distance; uv radiation would be inadequate for
plants to make sugars and oxygen
9. parent star color
if redder:
photosynthetic response would be insufficient
if bluer:
photosynthetic response would be insufficient
10. parent star luminosity relative to speciation
if increases too soon:
would develop runaway greenhouse effect
if increases too late:
would develop runaway glaciation
11. surface gravity (escape velocity)
if stronger:
planet’s atmosphere would retain too much ammonia and methane
if weaker:
planet’s atmosphere would lose too much water
12. distance from parent star
if farther:
planet would be too cool for a stable water cycle
if closer:
planet would be too warm for a stable water cycle
13. inclination of orbit
if too great:
temperature differences on the planet would be too extreme
14. orbital eccentricity
if too great:
seasonal temperature differences would be too extreme
15. axial tilt
if greater:
surface temperature differences would be too great
if less:
surface temperature differences would be too great
16. rotation period
if longer:
diurnal temperature differences would be too great
if shorter:
atmospheric wind velocities would be too great
17. rate of change in rotation period
if larger:
surface temperature range necessary for life would not be sustained
if smaller:
surface temperature range necessary for life would not be sustained
18. age
if too young:
planet would rotate too rapidly
if too old:
planet would rotate too slowly
20
19. magnetic field
if stronger:
electromagnetic storms would be too severe
if weaker:
ozone shield and life on the land would be inadequately protected from hard stellar
and solar radiation
20. thickness of crust
if thicker:
too much oxygen would be transferred from the atmosphere to the crust
if thinner:
volcanic and tectonic activity would be too great
21. albedo (ratio of reflected light to total amount falling on surface)
if greater:
runaway glaciation would develop
if less:
runaway greenhouse effect would develop
22. collision rate with asteroids and comets
if greater:
too many species would become extinct
if less:
crust would be too depleted of materials essential for life
23. oxygen to nitrogen ratio in atmosphere
if larger:
advanced life function, would proceed too quickly
if smaller:
advanced life functions would proceed too slowly
24. carbon dioxide level in atmosphere
if greater:
runaway greenhouse effect would develop
if less:
plants would be unable to maintain efficient photosynthesis
25. water vapor level in atmosphere
if greater:
runaway greenhouse effect would develop
if less:
rainfall would be too meager for advanced life on the land
26. atmospheric electric discharge rate
if greater:
too much fire destruction would occur
if less:
too little nitrogen would be fixed in the atmosphere
27. ozone level in atmosphere
if greater:
surface temperatures would be too low
if less:
surface temperatures would be too high; there would be too much uv radiation at the
surface
28. oxygen quantity in atmosphere
if greater:
plants and hydrocarbons would bum up too easily
if less:
advanced animals would have too little to breathe
29. tectonic plate activity
if greater:
too many life forms would be destroyed
if less:
nutrients on ocean floors (from river run off) would not be recycled to the continents
through tectonic uplift
21
30. oceans-to-continents ratio
if greater:
diversity and complexity of life forms would be limited
if smaller:
diversity and complexity of life forms would be limited
31. global distribution of continents (for Earth)
if too much in the southern hemisphere:
seasonal temperature differences would be too severe
for advanced life
32. soil mineralization
if too nutrient poor:
diversity and complexity of life forms would be limited
if too nutrient rich:
diversity and complexity of life forms would be limited
33. gravitational interaction with a moon
if greater:
tidal effects on the oceans, atmosphere, and rotational period would be too severe
if less:
orbital obliquity changes would cause climatic instabilities; movement of nutrients and
life from the oceans to the continents and continents to the oceans would be insufficient;
magnetic field would be too weak
Evidence for Fine tuning of the universe:
More than two dozen parameters for the universe must have values falling within narrowly
defined ranges for life of any kind to exist.
1. strong nuclear force constant
if larger:
no hydrogen; nuclei essential for life would be unstable
if smaller:
no elements other than hydrogen
2. weak nuclear force constant
if larger:
too much hydrogen converted to helium in big bang, hence too much heavy element
material made by star burning; no expulsion of heavy elements from stars
if smaller:
too little helium produced from big bang, hence too little heavy element material
made by star burning; no expulsion of heavy elements from stars
3. gravitational force constant
if larger:
stars would be too hot and would burn up too quickly and to unevenly
if smaller:
stars would remain so cool that nuclear fusion would never ignite, hence no heavy
element production
4. electromagnetic force constant
if larger:
insufficient chemical bonding; elements more massive than boron would be too
unstable for fission
if smaller:
insufficient chemical bonding
5. ratio of electromagnetic force constant to gravitational force constant
if larger:
no stars less than 1.4 solar masses, hence short stellar life spans and uneven stellar
luminosities
if smaller:
no stars more than 0.8 solar masses, hence no heavy element production
6. ratio of electron to proton mass
if larger:
insufficient chemical bonding
if smaller:
insufficient chemical bonding
7. ratio of numbers of protons to electrons
if larger:
electromagnetism would dominate gravity, preventing galaxy, star, and planet
formation
if smaller:
electromagnetism would dominate gravity, preventing galaxy, star, and planet
formation
8. expansion rate of the universe
if larger:
no galaxy formation
if smaller:
universe would collapse prior to star formation
43
The entirety of Appendix One is taken from Hugh Ross, The Creator and the Cosmos: How the Greatest
Scientific Discoveries of the Century Reveal God, 2d ed. (Colorado Springs: Navpress, 1995), 118-21.
16
9. entropy level of the universe
if larger:
no star condensation within the proto-galaxies
if smaller:
no proto-galaxy formation
10. mass density of the universe
if larger:
too much deuterium from big bang, hence stars burn too rapidly
if smaller:
insufficient helium from big bang, hence too few heavy elements forming
11. velocity of light
if faster:
stars would be too luminous
if slower:
stars would not be luminous enough
12. age of the universe
if older:
no solar-type stars in a stable burning phase in the right part of the galaxy
if younger:
solar-type stars in a stable burning phase would not yet have formed
13. initial uniformity of radiation
if smoother:
stars, star dusters, and galaxies would not have formed
if coarser:
universe by now would be mostly black holes and empty space
14. fine structure constant (a number used to describe the fine structure splitting of spectral lines)
if larger:
DNA would be unable to function; no stars more than 0.7 solar masses
if smaller:
DNA would be unable to function; no stars less than 1.8 solar masses
15. average distance between galaxies
if larger:
insufficient gas would be infused into our galaxy to sustain star formation over an
adequate time span
if smaller:
the sun’s orbit would be too radically disturbed
16. average distance between stars
if larger:
heavy element density too thin for rocky planets to form
if smaller:
planetary orbits would become destabilized
17. decay rate of the proton
if greater:
life would be exterminated by the release of radiation
if smaller:
insufficient matter in the universe for life
18. 12Carbon (12C) to 16Oxygen (16O) energy level ratio
if larger:
insufficient oxygen
if smaller:
insufficient carbon ground state energy level for 4Helium (4He)
if larger:
insufficient carbon and oxygen
if smaller:
insufficient carbon and oxygen
20. decay rate of 8Beryllium (8Be)
if slower:
heavy element fusion would generate catastrophic explosions in all the stars
if faster:
no element production beyond beryllium and, hence, no life chemistry possible
21. mass excess of the neutron over the proton
if greater:
neutron decay would leave too few neutrons to form the heavy elements essential
17
for life
if smaller:
proton decay would cause all stars to collapse rapidly into neutron stars or black
holes
22. initial excess of nucleons over anti-nucleons
if greater:
too much radiation for planets to form
if smaller:
not enough matter for galaxies or stars to form
23. polarity of the water molecule
if greater:
heat of fusion and vaporization would be too great for life to exist
if smaller:
heat of fusion and vaporization would be too small for life’s existence; liquid water
would become too inferior a solvent for life chemistry to proceed; ice would not float, leading
to a runaway freeze-up
24. supernovae eruptions
if too close:
radiation would exterminate life on the planet
if too far:
not enough heavy element ashes for the formation of rocky planets
if too frequent:
life on the planet would be exterminated
if too infrequent:
not enough heavy element ashes for the formation of rocky planets
if too late:
life on the planet would be exterminated by radiation
if too soon:
not enough heavy element ashes for the formation of rocky planets
25. white dwarf binaries
if too few:
insufficient fluorine produced for life chemistry to proceed
if too many:
disruption of planetary orbits from stellar density; life on the planet would be
exterminated
if too soon:
not enough heavy elements made for efficient fluorine production
if too late:
fluorine made too late for incorporation in proto-planet
26. ratio of exotic to ordinary matter
if smaller:
galaxies would not form
if larger:
universe would collapse before solar type stars could form
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