Examples of Politically Active Women
Furthermore, Islamic history is filled with women who undertook various forms of political activism. Unfortunately, however, much of this history has been ignored. The first martyr in Islam was a woman, Sumaya zawgat Yasir. Sumaya was tortured and killed in the early period of Islam because of her belief in Prophet Muhammad and the message he brought of one God. Jane Smith, "Women, Religion, and Social Change in Early Islam", Women, Religion, and Social Change, ed. Yvonne Haddad and Elison Findly, State University of New York Press, 1985, p. 25; Muhammad al-Khudari, Noor al Yakin fi Sirat Sayid al-Mursalin, 1935, p.47.
Asma bint Umais was a woman who traveled by sea and emigrated to Abyssinia when the Muslims were being persecuted in Mecca. Abu Musa narrated the following: Asma visited Hafsa, the Prophet’s wife. During her visit Umar ibn al-Khattab arrived and upon seeing Asma he inquired who she was. Hafsa told him Asma’s name whereupon Umar asked if she was the Abyssinian sea traveler and Asma replied that she was. Umar then said "We did hijra before you, so we are closer to the Prophet (PBUH)." Later, the Prophet arrived and Asma related to him what Umar said. The Prophet said to her "Nobody is closer to me than you. Umar and his companions have one hijra, but for you, people of the sea, you have two." Asma later said that others who had emigrated by sea would ask her about this event. Abdelhalim abu Shaqa, Emancipation of Woman at the Time of the Prophet, 1990, vol. 2, p. 37 (citing Bukhari 13:245 and Muslim, The Book of Pilgrimage, 4:101). This story is significant in that Asma bint Umais and her travels in search of religious freedom appeared to be common knowledge and were noteworthy enough to receive praise from the Prophet.
Women also fought in battles to defend Islam. Umm Imara defended the Prophet during the Battle of Uhud after the Muslims were defeated. Umar ibn al-Khattab said "I heard the Prophet (PBUH) saying ‘On the day of Uhud, I never looked right or left without seeing Umm Imara fighting to defend me.’" Abdelhalim abu Shaqa, Emancipation of Woman at the Time of the Prophet, 1990, vol. 2, p. 53 (citing Ibn Sad, Tabaqat).
Another famous female warrior was Nasiba bint Kaab who fought with the Prophet in the Battle of Uhud (625 A.D./ 3 A.H.) and later on with Caliph Abu Bakr in the Ridda war (632 A.D./ 10 A.H.). She was known as such a courageous and dedicated warrior that Abu Bakr himself attended her reception upon her return to Medina. M.H. Sherif, The Muslim Woman Between the Truth of Sharia and the Fallacy of Falsification, Dar al-Marifa al-Jamiyiya, 1987, p. 78 (citing Ibn Sad, Tabakat 4:302-304).
Umm Salama, one of the Prophet’s wives, was instrumental in advising the Prophet during the crisis at Hudaybiya in 628 A.D. (6 A.H.). Muhammad al-Ghazali, Fiqh al-Sira, Alim al-Marifa, p. 363. Her advice prevented disunity among the Muslims after the Treaty of Hudaybiya and her opinion prevailed over that of many men, including Umar ibn al-Khattab. Muhammad al-Ghazali, Fiqh al-Sira, Alim al-Marifa, p. 363. Umm Salama was also an inquisitive student of Islam. She asked the Prophet why only men were mentioned in the Quran and in response God revealed the following verse: "Verily, for all men and women who have surrendered themselves unto God, and all believing men and believing women, and all truly devout men and truly devout women, and all men and women who are true to their word, and all men and women who are patient in adversity, and all men and women who humble themselves before God, and all men and women who give in charity, and all self-denying men and self-denying women, and all men and women who are mindful of their chastity, and all men and women who remember God unceasingly: for all of them has God readied forgiveness of sins and a mighty reward." (Quran 33:35). Fatima Mernissi, The Veil and the Male Elite, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1987, p. 118 (citing al-Tabari, Tafsir, vol. 22, p. 10).
Umm Hani bint Abi Talib offered refuge to two non-Muslim men who sought protection after the opening of Mecca. After she offered them refuge she went to the Prophet and told him what she had done. He said to her, "We offer refuge to whomever you offered and we guarantee the safety to whom you guaranteed safety." M.H. Sherif, The Muslim Woman Between the Truth of Sharia and the Fallacy of Falsification, Dar al-Marifa al-Jamiyiya, 1987, p. 71-72. (citing Sirat Ibn Hisham, 4:39-40). Thus, in essence, Umm Hani bint Abi Talib performed a significant political function, one often reserved only for the ruler, when she granted political asylum to these men.
Aisha, a wife of Prophet Muhammad, was also politically active. In the year 658 A.D. (36 A.H.) she played a major role in the armed resistance against Ali, the fourth successor after the death of Prophet Muhammad. (Fatima Mernissi, The Forgotten Queens of Islam, University of Minnesota Press, 1993, p. 66.) Aisha went to mosques and rallied people to take up arms against Ali. (Ibid). Aisha, the only woman on the battlefield, led thousands of men into the "Battle of the Camel." (Ibid). Aisha was clearly an influential leader as shown by the following statement made by Hasan the son of Ali after Aisha traveled to Basra with Talha and al-Zubayr, members of Ali’s opposition, to rally support. Hasan, in a speech made in Kufa, stated, "I swear by God, surely she is the wife of your Prophet, in this life and the hereafter. But it is a test from God to know whether you will obey Him or her." (Abdelhalim Abu Shaka, The Emancipation of Woman at the Time of the Prophet, 1990, p. 151 (citing Bukhari).
Arguments Against Political Participation
Despite the evidence to the contrary, some argue that in Islam women cannot or should not hold positions of leadership. This argument is based primarily on the interpretation given to one hadith and to two Quranic verses. The hadith, related by Abu Bakra, states "God has benefited me from a word I heard from the Prophet (PBUH) on the day of the Camel, after I had been about to join the ranks of the people of the Camel. [Abu Bakra] said ‘When the Prophet was informed that the people of Persia had crowned the daughter of Kisra as their ruler, he said: No people will ever succeed if they hand their affairs to a woman.’" Sahih al-Bukhari, trans. by M.M. Khan, Kazi Publications, 1983, vol. 5, p. 508, no. 508; vol. 9, p. 170-171, no. 219. [SEE SOURCES CHAPTER FOR DISCUSSION OF THIS HADITH] Ibn Hazm understood the hadith to mean that a woman can hold any position of leadership other than actually being the head of state. Muhammad al-Ghazali, Sunna al-Nabawiya Bayna Ahl al-Fiqh wa Ahl al-Hadith, Dar al-Shuruq, 1989, p.56. Muhammad al-Ghazali states that this hadith must be closely scrutinized and while he has no particular desire to have a woman act as head of state, he is adamant that the state be headed by the most capable person. Muhammad al-Ghazali, Sunna al-Nabawiya Bayna Ahl al-Fiqh wa Ahl al-Hadith, Dar al-Shuruq, 1989, p.56. Al-Ghazali also argued that narrowly interpreting this hadith would contradict historical realities, e.g. England under Queen Victoria, India under Indira Ghandi, and Israel under Golda Meir. Muhammad al-Ghazali, Sunna al-Nabawiya Bayna Ahl al-Fiqh wa Ahl al-Hadith, Dar al-Shuruq, 1989, p.58. Al-Ghazali also argues that femininity or masculinity is irrelevant in this regard and he goes on to state that a pious woman is better than a bearded man who has gone astray. (Ibid).
A Quranic verse used to justify excluding women from political leadership states: " And the divorced women shall undergo, without remarrying, a waiting period of three monthly courses: for it is not lawful for them to conceal what God may have created in their wombs, if they believe in God and the Last Day. And during this period their husbands are fully entitled to take them back, if they desire reconciliation; but, in accordance with justice, the rights of the wives with regard to their husbands are equal to the husbands’ rights with regard to them, although men have a degree (darajah) over them. And God is almighty, wise. (Quran 2:228). Imam al-Tabari argued that the degree referred to in this verse exhorts men to treat their wives better than they expect to be treated; in other words, the husband should not require his wife to fulfill all of her obligations to him, but he should still fulfill all of his obligations to her. M.H. Sherif, The Muslim Woman Between the Truth of Sharia and the Fallacy of Falsification, Dar al-Marifa al-Jamiyiya, 1987, p. 141 (citing al-Tabari, Tafsir, 1954, vol. 2, p. 454). The view held by Imam al-Tabari, that husbands should treat their wives better than they expect to be treated by them, was apparently the interpretation given to this verse in the early years of Islam. Abdullah ibn Abbas (d. 788 A.D./ 69 A.H.), the Prophet’s cousin, said: "I adorn myself for my wife as she adorns herself for me, and I would not like to exact all my rights that she owes me, so that she also would not claim all what is due to her...The ‘degree’ is a cue to invite men to pleasant cohabitation and to extend to women more money and good manners, because the one with more gifts should impose more upon himself." M.H. Sherif, "Women and Political Power in Muslim Thought", Lecture, Cornell University, 1987 (citing al-Tabari, Tafsir, 1954, vol. 2, p. 454). In later years, scholars began to view the "degree" as equivalent to the advantages of men and linked the alleged superiority to men’s advantages in jihad, inheritance, and whatever else men had in abundance over women. M.H. Sherif, "Women and Political Power in Muslim Thought", Lecture, Cornell University, 1987 (citing al-Tabari, Tafsir, 1954, vol. 2, p. 454). This supposed superiority was then used as the basis for the argument that wives must obey their husbands. (Ibid). Sayyid Qutb argues that this verse relates to the divorce context where the husband, who has initiated the divorce, has the right to reconcile with his wife during the waiting period. Sayyid Qutb further states: "The nature of the situation imposes this right and the degree is restricted to this situation and cannot be construed as of a general nature, as many misunderstand and then adduce it to situations in which it is not applicable." M.H. Sherif, "Women and Political Power in Muslim Thought", Lecture, Cornell University, 1987 (citing Sayyid Qutb, Fi Dhilal al-Quran, 1973, vol. 2, pp. 246-247). Another argument, again restricting this verse to the divorce setting, holds that the degree or advantage men have is the ability to pronounce divorce without the need for arbitration. Amina Wadud-Muhsin, Quran and Woman, Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd., 1992, p.68. Thus, based on the above, this verse need not be interpreted to hold that all men are superior to all women in all situations, thereby denying women political roles.
The other oft quoted verse used to justify the subjugation of women states: "Men shall take full care (qawamuna) of women with the bounties which God has bestowed more abundantly[preferred] (faddala) on some of the former than on some of the latter, and with what they may spend out of their possessions. And the righteous women are the truly devout ones, who guard the intimacy which God has ordained to be guarded." (Quran 4: 34). This verse states a conditional proposition. Men are to take full care of women if two conditions are met: first, if the man’s bounties are more abundant than the woman’s and second, if the man supports the woman from his means. Amina Wadud-Muhsin, Quran and Woman, Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd., 1992, p.70. In terms of more abundant material bounties, the only Quranic reference where men receive a greater share than women is inheritance (Quran 4:7). Thus, men are responsible to spend of their property on women and so they are given a larger share in inheritance. Amina Wadud-Muhsin, Quran and Woman, Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd., 1992, p.71. The verse gives no indication of men’s superiority over women in regards to intelligence, piety, or any other attribute; therefore, it makes little sense to interpret this verse to mean that men are superior to women. Furthermore, the verse states that some have been given more bounties than some; thus, men as a class are not quawamuna over women as a class. Amina Wadud-Muhsin, Quran and Woman, Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd., 1992, p.71 (citing Aziza al-Hibri, "A Study of Islamic Herstory", Women and Islam: Women’s Studies International Forum Magazine, 1982, 5:218). To fully understand the import of the interpretation of this verse in the subjugation of women, one must look at the various interpretations given to qawamuna. Various translations render it as "in charge of", "in charge of the affairs of", or "managers of the affairs of." Amina Wadud-Muhsin, Quran and Woman, Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd., 1992, p.71. Another plausible interpretation is "in charge of the service of" because the word quwamuna includes the concepts of taking care of another, maintaining another, and moral responsibility for another (Muhammad Asad, The Mesage of the Quran, Dar Al-Andalus, 1980, p. 109, nt. 42); taken together, these concepts refer to meeting the needs of another. Whether the concept of qawamuna applies only in the family setting or whether it applies to society as a whole is an issue of debate among scholars. (Id. at p. 72). Some argue that the concept applies to the family setting, specifically, it addresses the responsibility of the man to ensure that the woman is not burdened with other responsibilities while she is fulfilling her child-bearing function, thereby equalizing their responsibilities to the family. (Id. at p. 73). Thus, this verse does not hold that men have authority over women or that all men are superior to all women; therefore, it cannot be used as a categorical justification to deprive women of political involvement.
Conclusion
The Quran, sunnah, and Islamic history provide ample evidence of women undertaking various forms of political involvement from the bai’ah to fighting in battles to influencing political decisions. Ignoring the contributions of Muslim women deprives our Islamic heritage of valuable role models while continuing the stagnation of Islamic thought. To exclude women from political involvement simply because they are women is an act of tribalism based on gender. The Prophet stated: "He is not of us who proclaims the cause of tribal partisanship..."Muhammad Asad, The Principles of State and Government in Islam, Dar Al-Andalus, 1980, p. 32 (citing Abu Dawud).
It's embarrassing to think about the women of that time...
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