Muhammad, the Rise of Islam, and its Effect on Western Civilization
Muhammad ibn Abdullah is regarded by Muslims worldwide as the final prophet of God and one of the greatest reformers of all time, if not the greatest. Islam reveres him for bringing God’s final message to the world. Before the age of forty, however, he was not very well known in Mecca. He was involved in the local politics and was quite the mediator during the tribal conflicts. He managed to stop the bloodshed, and his clan, the Quraysh, made a business out of the pilgrimages to the Kaaba.
During that time, Arabia followed a polytheistic religion with more than three hundred gods. Even at that time, the Kaaba was considered a holy place by several faiths, not just the Arab Pagans. As the Quraysh were becoming richer from the business they made out of the pilgrims, their power over Mecca grew as well. Other than Muhammad himself, only Abu Talib, the uncle and caretaker of Muhammad, was appalled by what was going on. The poor were exploited and oppressed. The women of Mecca were treated as possessions. It was considered the height of dishonor if a daughter had been born instead of a son, and many baby girls were brought as offerings to their gods. Slavery was prevalent in Mecca as well; the Arabs would bring slaves from Africa, one of whom was Bilal, one of the greatest companions of Muhammad. At the age of forty, Muhammad began to change the world.
According to Islamic teachings, he was praying in a nearby Cave of Hira when the Archangel Gabriel came to him and told him to read in the name of the One God. Muhammad was illiterate, but the angel commanded him three more times and revealed to Muhammad that he is a prophet of God. He himself feared for his sanity at first, but Gabriel appeared before him again saying that he was a prophet. His wife was the first one to become a Muslim. Soon, his message spread like wildfire. Everyone left, right, and center was accepting Islam, notably the poor, who were oppressed by the Quraysh.
His first few followers learned from him in secret, and declared themselves Muslims by a simple slogan; “La ilaha il-Allah, Muhammaun Rasulullah.” which translates to, “There is no god (worthy of worship) but Allah and Muhammad is His messenger.” The teachings of Islam revolve around five pillars and six articles of faith that practicing Muslims live by to this day. Muhammad’s teachings came in the form of poetry, which was common in the Arabian Peninsula at the time. However, the style of the Quran was very different from the common poetry seen in the region. As he was illiterate, he had his companions write down what God is said to have revealed to him. Eventually, more important people of the Quraysh had begun to join Islam, including the warrior, Hamza, who was a relative of Muhammad and his father in law, Abu Bakr.
This did not sit well with the Quraysh leadership. They did everything in their power to stop the spread of Islam ranging from murder to refusal to sell essential needs to Muslims. Many fled to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) under the protection of a Christian monarch, while others stayed behind in the outskirts of Mecca. It was in this time that Abu Talib died and the final protection the Muslims had from the Quraysh was gone. Eventually, Muhamad and his followers fled to Yathrib, or what is now Medina.
In their years in Yathrib, the Muslim population grew in the Arabian Peninsula. What attracted people to it was the fact that it preached the equality of men and women, which was unthinkable at that time. Islam also preached charity and the humane treatment of the poor. Most of all, it was inclusive of all people regardless of race and background, as long as their belief was sincere. Muhammad also emphasized the importance of education, which would play a major role in the Dark Ages of Europe, where education was scarce.
Unfortunately, the Quraysh still wanted to silence Muhammad before their power could be challenged. This eventually led to war between the Muslims and the forces of Mecca. One of the most famous battles between the two was the Battle of Badr, in which one of the most notorious enemies of the Muslims and leaders of Mecca, Abu Jahl had been killed. The war went on for years, until finally, an armistice was declared between the Meccans and the Muslims. In that time, Muhammad’s message of Islam, which is Arabic for submission and has roots in the word for peace, spread throughout the Middle-East, North Africa, and even parts of Europe.
Seeing all these people from all walks of life rallying to the teachings of Muhammad, the Quraysh leadership realized that this man was something special and was indeed a Prophet of God. The willingly became Muslims, and Islam became the official religion in the Arabian Peninsula. That was the beginning of Muhammad’s change of the world.
Islam also spread to the east as far as India during the many campaigns by the Caliphate, or Muslim Empire. Under the Muslim rule, and by the teachings of their prophet, religious tolerance was a core value of Islam. As long as the Jews, Christians, and other indigenous faiths paid taxes, they were free to practice whatever religion that they desired.
One thing that united all the Muslim nations was the fact that the Quran and Hadith were never translated into any language from the original Arabic at the time. Therefore, Muslims had to learn to read and understand Arabic in order to understand their holy scriptures. This required them to be educated and literate, not just the men but the women as well.
As Muhammad began to fall ill at the age of sixty-two, he gave one last sermon to his followers:
“O People, lend me an attentive ear, for I know not whether after this year, I shall ever be amongst you again. Therefore listen to what I am saying to you very carefully and take these words to those who could not be present today.
O People, just as you regard
this month, this day,
this city (Mecca) as sacred, so regard the life and property of every
Muslim as a sacred trust. Return the goods entrusted to you to their rightful owners. Hurt no-one, so that no-one may hurt you. Remember that you will indeed meet your Lord, and that He will indeed reckon your deeds.
Allah has forbidden you to take
usury, therefore all interest obligation shall henceforth be waived. Your capital, however, is yours to keep. You will neither inflict nor suffer any inequity. Allah has judged that there shall be no interest and that all the interest due to
‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib (An uncle of Muhammad) shall henceforth be waived...
Beware of
Shayṭān (Satan), for the safety of your religion. He has lost all hope that he will ever be able to lead you astray in big things, so beware of following him in small things.
O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your women, but they also have rights over you. Remember that you have taken them as your wives only under Allah's trust and with His permission. If they abide by your right then to them belongs the right to be fed and clothed in kindness. Do treat your women well and be kind to them for they are your partners and committed helpers. And it is your right that they do not make friends with any one of whom you do not approve, as well as never to be unchaste.
O People, listen to me in earnest, worship Allah, say your
five daily prayers, fast during the month of
Ramadan, and give your wealth in
zakat (Charity). Perform
hajj (annual pilgrimage to Mecca that able bodied Muslims must make at least once in a lifetime) if you can afford to.
All mankind is from
Adam and
Hawwāʾ (Eve), an
Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a
white has no superiority over
black nor a black has any superiority over white except by piety and good action. Learn that every Muslim is a brother to every Muslim and that the Muslims constitute
one brotherhood. Nothing shall be legitimate to a Muslim which belongs to a fellow Muslim unless it was given freely and willingly. Do not, therefore, do injustice to yourselves.
Remember, one day you will appear before Allah and answer your deeds. So beware, do not stray from the path of righteousness after I am gone.
O People, no prophet or apostle will come after me and no new faith will be born. Reason well, therefore, O People, and understand words which I convey to you. I leave behind me two things, the
Qu'ran and my example, the
Sunnah and if you follow these you will never go astray.
All those who listen to me shall pass on my words to others and those to others again; and may the last ones understand my words better than those who listen to me directly. Be my witness, O Allah, that I have conveyed your message to your people"
Shortly after delivering his final message, Muhammad died. However, all his efforts continued to affect the world post-mortem. Some of his major contributions were to science and mathematics.
Astronomy was always a major interest for the Arabs.
The Quran contains many references to astronomy:
“And it is He who created the night and the day and the sun and the moon; all [heavenly bodies] in an orbit are swimming."
These references, and the injunctions to learn, inspired the early Muslim scholars to study the heavens. They integrated the earlier works of the Indians, Persians and Greeks into a new synthesis.
Ptolemy's Almagest (the title as we know it today is actually Arabic) was translated, studied and criticized. Many new stars were discovered, as we see in their Arabic names - Algol, Deneb, Betelgeuse, Rigel, Aldebaran. Astronomical tables were compiled, among them the Toledan tables, which were used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe and Kepler.
Also compiled were almanacs - another Arabic term. Other terms from Arabic are zenith, nadir, Aledo, azimuth.
Muslim astronomers were the first to establish observatories, like the one built at Mugharah by Hulagu, the son of Genghis Khan, in Persia, and they invented instruments such as the quadrant and astrolabe, which led to advances not only in astronomy but in oceanic navigation, contributing to the European age of exploration.
Geography was also a major focus for the Muslims. Muslim scholars paid great attention to geography. In fact, the Muslims' great concern for geography originated with their religion.
The Quran encourages people to travel throughout the earth to see God's signs and patterns everywhere. Islam also requires each Muslim to have at least enough knowledge of geography to know the direction of the Qiblah (the position of the Ka'bah in Makkah) in order to pray five times a day.
Muslims were also used to taking long journeys to conduct trade as well as to make the Hajj and spread their religion. The far-flung Islamic empire enabled scholar-explorers to compile large amounts of geographical and climatic information from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Among the most famous names in the field of geography, even in the West, are Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Batuta, renowned for their written accounts of their extensive explorations.
In 1166, Al-Idrisi, the well-known Muslim scholar who served the Sicilian court, produced very accurate maps, including a world map with all the continents and their mountains, rivers and famous cities. Al-Muqdishi was the first geographer to produce accurate maps in color.
Spain was ruled by Muslims under the banner of Islam for over 700 years. By the 15th century of the Gregorian calendar the ruler-ship of Islam had been seated in Spain and Muslims had established centers of learning which commanded respect all over the known world at that time. There were no "Dark Ages" such the rest of Europe experienced for the Muslims in Spain and those who lived there with them. In January of 1492 Muslim Spain capitulated to Catholic Rome under King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. By July of the same year, Muslims were instrumental in helping navigate Christopher Columbus to the Caribbean South of Florida.
It was, moreover, with the help of Muslim navigators and their inventions that Magellan was able to traverse the Cape of Good Hope, and Da Gamma and Columbus had Muslim navigators on board their ships.
The study of man and archaeology also contributed much to history. Seeking knowledge is obligatory in Islam for every Muslim, man and woman. The main sources of Islam, the Quran and the Sunnah (Prophet Muhammad's traditions), encourage Muslims to seek knowledge and be scholars, since this, they say, is the best way for people to know God, to appreciate His wondrous creations and be thankful for them.
Muslims have always been eager to seek knowledge, both religious and secular, and within a few years of Muhammad's mission, a great civilization sprang up and flourished. The outcome is shown in the spread of Islamic universities; Al-Zaytunah in Tunis, and Al-Azhar in Cairo go back more than 1,000 years and are the oldest existing universities in the world. Indeed, they were the models for the first European universities, such as Bologna, Heidelberg, and the Sorbonne. Even the familiar academic cap and gown originated at Al-Azhar University.
Muslims made great advances in many different fields, such as geography, physics, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, pharmacology, architecture, linguistics and astronomy. Algebra and the Arabic numerals were introduced to the world by Muslim scholars. The astrolabe, the quadrant, and other navigational devices and maps were developed by Muslim scholars and played an important role in world progress, most notably in Europe's age of exploration.
Muslim scholars studied the ancient civilizations from Greece and Rome to China and India. The works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid and others were translated into Arabic. Muslim scholars and scientists then added their own creative ideas, discoveries and inventions, and finally transmitted this new knowledge to Europe, leading directly to the Renaissance. Many scientific and medical treatises, having been translated into Latin, were standard text and reference books as late as the 17th and 18th centuries.
In Mathematics, Muslim mathematicians excelled in geometry, as can be seen in their graphic arts, and it was the great Al-Biruni (who excelled also in the fields of natural history, even geology and mineralogy) who established trigonometry as a distinct branch of mathematics. Other Muslim mathematicians made significant progress in number theory.
The Muslims invented the symbol for zero (The word "cipher" comes from Arabic sifr), and they organized the numbers into the decimal system - base 10. Additionally, they invented the symbol to express an unknown quantity, i.e. variables like x.
The first great Muslim mathematician, Al-Khawarizmi, invented the subject of algebra (al-Jabr), which was further developed by others, most notably Umar Khayyam. Al-Khawarizmi's work, in Latin translation, brought the Arabic numerals along with the mathematics to Europe, through Spain. The word "algorithm" is derived from his name.
In Islam, the human body is a source of appreciation, as it is created by Almighty Allah (God). How it functions, how to keep it clean and safe, how to prevent diseases from attacking it or cure those diseases, have been important issues for Muslims.
Ibn Sina (d. 1037), better known to the West as Avicenna, was perhaps the greatest physician until the modern era. His famous book, Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb, remained a standard textbook even in Europe, for over 700 years. Ibn Sina's work is still studied and built upon in the East.
Since the religion did not forbid it, Muslim scholars used human cadavers to study anatomy and physiology and to help their students understand how the body functions. This empirical study enabled surgery to develop very quickly.
Al-Razi, known in the West as Rhazes, the famous physician and scientist, (d. 932) was one of the greatest physicians in the world in the Middle Ages. He stressed empirical observation and clinical medicine and was unrivalled as a diagnostician. He also wrote a treatise on hygiene in hospitals. Kahaf Abul-Qasim Al-Sahabi was a very famous surgeon in the eleventh century, known in Europe for his work, Concession (Kitab al-Tasrif).
Other significant contributions were made in pharmacology, such as Ibn Sina's Kitab al-Shifa' (Book of Healing), and in public health. Every major city in the Islamic world had a number of excellent hospitals, some of them teaching hospitals, and many of them were specialized for particular diseases, including mental and emotional. The Ottomans were particularly noted for their building of hospitals and for the high level of hygiene practiced in them.
The contributions made by Muhammad and Islam to Western Civilization helped a lot during the dark ages of Europe. They had preserved knowledge long forgotten, just as the Irish had. The only difference was in the sciences as well as literary knowledge. During the Age of the Renaissance, when everybody was seek knowledge and advancement in arts, religion, and the sciences, the studies and discoveries of the Muslims did wonders in setting forth the reforms of geography, mathematics, and medicine to name a few.